The Use of Bone in Stone Tool Technology: Retouchers from Veternica and Vindija (Croatia)
Marko Banda1, Siniša Radović2, Ivor Karavanić3
1 Corresponding author. Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, Ivana Lučića 3, 10000 Zagreb, email: mabanda@ffzg.hr / markobanda0@gmail.com
2 Institute for Quaternary Palaeontology and Geology, Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Ante Kovačića 5, 10000 Zagreb
3 Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, Ivana Lučića 3, 10000 Zagreb; Department of Anthropology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071
Cite as Banda, M., Radović, S. & Karavanić, I. (2020). The Use of Bone in Stone Tool Technology: Retouchers from Veternica and Vindija (Croatia). Litikum – Journal of the Lithic Research Roundtable, 8 (Studies commemorating Jacques Tixier), pp. 13–34. https://doi.org/10.23898/litikuma0023
Abstract. Bone retouchers are tools used for the tasks of retouching lithics and are usually made from long bone shaft fragments. They are a common feature of many Middle Palaeolithic assemblages throughout Europe and the Near East but are also found during the Late Lower Palaeolithic and the Upper Palaeolithic. This study presents the results of the analysis of bone retouchers from the Middle Palaeolithic contexts of Veternica (MIS 3-5) and the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic contexts of Vindija (MIS 3), Northwestern Croatia. The study is comprised of an examination of site information, taxonomic and anatomical determination, basic taphonomic analysis, morphometric analysis and analysis of the retoucher use traces. The results reveal a fundamental difference between the two retoucher assemblages. In Veternica, the bone retouchers are an important part of stone tool technology, represented by the number of retouchers, preferential selection of faunal species, preparatory scraping, evidence of curation, the sometimes heavy intensity of use and shaping of the morphology through flaking. In Vindija, retouchers represent a more expedient technology, suggested by the low number of finds in individual layers, their small size, low intensity of use and lack of evidence for preparatory measures and curation. Exceptionally, the assemblage from Veternica has provided retouchers made from cave bear bones, which could suggest exploitation of this species by Neanderthals.
Keywords: Bone retouchers, Bone tool technology, Middle Palaeolithic, Vindija, Veternica
We would like to thank the director of the Institute for Quaternary Palaeontology and Geology, Jadranka Mauch Lenardić, for permitting us to study and publish the material. Mateo Petrović we sincerely thank for his help with photographing the artefacts.
Data availability statement: The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.
Disclosure statement: No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Funding statement: The author received no financial support for the research and/or the publication of this article.
Copyright: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike International Public License (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0). You are free to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format, and transform the material, under the following terms: You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may not use the material for commercial purposes. If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original.
List of references
Abrams G., Bello S.M., Di Modica K., Pirson S., & Bonjean D. (2014). When Neanderthals used cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) remains: Bone retouchers from unit 5 of Scladina Cave (Belgium). Quaternary International, 326-327, 274-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.10.022
Abrams G. (2018). Palaeolithic bone retouchers from Belgium: A preliminary overview of the recent research through historic and recently excavated bone collections. In J.M. Hutson, A. García-Moreno, E.S. Noack, E. Turner, A. Villaluenga, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser (Eds.), The Origins of Bone Tool Technologies. “Retouching the Palaeolithic: Becoming Human and the Origins of Bone Tool Technology” Conference at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hannover, Germany, 21.-23. October 2015 (pp. 197-213). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie.
Ahern J.C.M., Karavanić I., Paunović M., Janković I., & Smith F.H. (2004). New discoveries and interpretations of hominid fossils and artifacts from Vindija Cave, Croatia. Journal of Human Evolution, 46, 25-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2003.09.010
Armand D., & Delagnes A. (1998). Les retouchoirs en os d’Artenac (couche 6c): perspectives archéozoologiques, taphonomiques et expérimentales. In J.-P. Brugal, L. Meignen, & M. Patou-Mathis (Eds.), Économie Préhistorique: Les Comportements de Subsistance au Paléolithique. XVIIIe Rencontre Internationale d’Archéologie et d’Histoire d’Antibes (pp. 205-214). Éditions APDCA.
Auguste P. (2002). Fiche éclats diaphysaires du Paléolithique moyen: Biache-Saint-Vaast (Pas-de-Calais) et Kulna (Moravie, République tchèque). In M. Patou-Mathis (Ed.), Retouchoirs, compresseurs, percuteurs…Os à impressions et éraillures (pp. 39-57). Société préhistorique française.
Banda M., & Karavanić I. (2019). Mustjerska industrija špilje Veternice / The Mousterian industry of Veternica Cave. Prilozi instituta za arheologiju u Zagrebu, 36, 5-40. https://doi.org/10.33254/piaz.36.1
Barandiarán I. (1987). Manipulación y uso de restos óseos. In P. Utrilla, J. Vílchez, L. Montes, I. Barandiarán, J. Altuna, E. Gil, P. López (Eds.), La cueva de Peńa Miel. Nieva de Cameros, La Rioja. Excavaciones Arqueológicas en Espańa 154 (pp. 87-101). Ministerio de Cultura.
Bello S.M., Parfitt S.A., De Groote I., & Kennaway G. (2013). Investigating experimental knapping damage on an antler hammer: a pilot-study using high-resolution imaging and analytical techniques. Journal of Archaeological Science, 40, 4528-4537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.07.016
Binford L.R. (1981). Bones: Ancient men and modern myths. Academic Press.
Blasco R., Rosell J., Cuartero F., Peris J. F., Gopher A., & Barkai R. (2013). Using bones to shape stones: MIS 9 bone retouchers at both edges of the Mediterranean Sea. PLoS One, 8(10), e76780. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076780
Blaser F., Kurtanjek D., & Paunović M. (2002). L’industrie du site néandertalien de la grotte de Vindija (Croatie): une révision des matieres premieres lithiques. L’Anthropologie, 106(3), 387-398. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-5521(02)01118-4
Brajković D. (2005). Korelacija tafodema skupine ungulata iz gornjopleistocenskih sedimenata špilja Vindija, Velika pećina i Veternica u sjeverozapadnoj Hrvatskoj. [Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation]. Sveučilište u Zagrebu.
Broglio A., & Kozłowski J. (1987). Il Paleolitico: Uomo, ambiente e culture. Jaca Book.
Bruner K.M. (2009). Testing Stratigraphic Integrity of Upper and Middle Paleolithic Deposits in Vindija Cave (Croatia): a Chipped Stone Refitting Analysis. [Unpublished Master’s Thesis]. University of Kansas.
Campmas E. (2012). Caractérisation de l’occupation des sites de la région de Témara (Maroc) au Pléistocène supérieur et nouvelles données sur la subsistance des hommes du Paléolithique moyen d’Afrique du Nord : Exemples des approches taphonomiques et archéozoologiques menées sur les faunes d’El Harhoura 2 et d’El Mnasra. [Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation]. Université Bordeaux 1.
Cartmill M., & Smith F.H. (2009). The Human Lineage. Wiley-Blackwell.
Castel J.C., Chauvière F.X., & Madelaine S. (2003). Sur os et sur dents: les “retouchoirs“ aurignaciens de la Ferassie (Savignac-de-Miremont, Dordogne). Paleo, 15, 29-50. https://doi.org/10.4000/paleo.1212
Castel J.C. (2004). L’influence des canidés sur la formation des ensembles archéologiques: Caractérisation des destruction dues au loup. Revue de Paléobiologie, 23(2), 675-693.
Chase P.G. (1990). Tool-making tools and Middle Paleolithic behavior. Current Anthropology, 31, 443-447. https://doi.org/10.1086/203869
Conrad N.J., & Bolus M. (2006). The Swabian Aurignacian and its place in European prehistory. In O. Bar-Yosef, & J. Zilhão (Eds.), Towards a Definition of the Aurignacian. Proceedings of the Symposium held in Lisbon, Portugal, June 25-30, 2002. Trabalhos de Arqueologia 45 (pp. 211-239). Instituto Português de Arqueologia.
Costamagno S., Bourguignon L., Soulier M .C., Meignen L., Beauval,C., Rendu W., Mussini C., Mann A., & Maureille B. (2018). Bone Retouchers and site function in the Quina Mousterian: the case of Les Pradelles (Marillac-le-France, France). In J. M. Hutson, A. García-Moreno, E. S. Noack, E. Turner, A. Villaluenga, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser (Eds.), The Origins of Bone Tool Technologies. “Retouching the Palaeolithic: Becoming Human and the Origins of Bone Tool Technology” Conference at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hannover, Germany, 21.-23. October 2015 (pp. 165-195). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie.
Davidson I. (2018). Touching language origins again: how worked bone shaped our understanding. In J. M. Hutson, A. García-Moreno, E. S. Noack, E. Turner, A. Villaluenga, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser (Eds.), The Origins of Bone Tool Technologies. “Retouching the Palaeolithic: Becoming Human and the Origins of Bone Tool Technology” Conference at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hannover, Germany, 21.-23. October 2015 (pp. 5-13). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie.
Daujeard C., Moncel M. H., Fiore I., Tagliacozzo A., Bindon P., & Raynal J. P. (2014). Middle Paleolithic bone retouchers in Southeastern France: Variability and functionality. Quaternary International, 326-327, 492-518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.022
Daujeard C., Valensi P., Fiore I., Moigne A. M., Tagliacozzo A., Moncel M. H., Santagata C., Cauche D., & Raynal J. P. (2018). A reappraisal of Lower to Middle Palaeolithic bone retouchers from Southeastern France (MIS 11 to 3). In J. M. Hutson, A. García-Moreno, E. S. Noack, E. Turner, A. Villaluenga, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser (Eds.), The Origins of Bone Tool Technologies. “Retouching the Palaeolithic: Becoming Human and the Origins of Bone Tool Technology” Conference at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hannover, Germany, 21.-23. October 2015 (pp. 93-132). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie.
d’Errico F., & Henshilwood C. S. (2007). Additional evidence for bone technology in the southern African Middle Stone Age. Journal of Human Evolution, 52, 142-163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.08.003
Devièse, T., Karavanić, I., Comeskey, D., Kubiak, C., Korlević, P., Hajdinjak, M., Radović, S., Procopio, N., Buckley, M., Pääbo S., & Higham, T. (2017). Direct dating of Neanderthal remains from the site of Vindija Cave and implications for the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(40), 10606-10611. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1709235114
Doyon L., Li, Z., Li, H., & d’Errico, F. (2018). Discovery of circa 115,000-year-old bone retouchers at Lingjing, Henan, China. PLoS ONE, 13(3), e0194318. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194318
Doyon L., Li, H., Li, Z., Wang, H., & Zhao, Q. (2019). Further Evidence of Organic Soft Hammer Percussion and Pressure Retouch from Lingjing (Xuchang, Henan, China). Lithic Technology, 44(2), 100-117. https://doi.org/10.1080/01977261.2019.1589926
Fernández-Jalvo, Y., & Andrews, P. (2016). Atlas of Taphonomic Identifications. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-7432-1
Giacobini, G., & Patou-Mathis, M. (2002). Fiche rappels taphonomiques. In M. Patou-Mathis (Ed.), Retouchoirs, compresseurs, percuteurs…Os à impressions et éraillures (pp. 21-28). Société préhistorique française.
Griggo, C., Boëda, E., Bonilauri, S., Al Sakhel, H., Emery-Barbier, A., & Courty, M. A. (2011). A Mousterian dromedary huntig camp: Level VI1aO at Umm el Tlel (El Kowm, Central Syria). In F. Bon, S. Costamagno, N. Valdeyron (Eds.), Hunting Camps in Prehistory: Current Archaeological Approaches. Proceedings of the International Symposium, May 13-15 2009 (pp. 103-129). University Toulouse II – Le Mirail.
Henri-Martin L. (1906). Maillets ou enclumes en os provenant de la couche moustérienne de la Quina (Charente). Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, 3(4), 155-162. https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1906.11456
Henshilwood C.S., d’Errico F., Marean C.W., Milo R.G., & Yates R. (2001). An early bone tool industry from the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, South Africa: implications for the origins of modern human behaviour, symbolism and language. Journal of Human Evolution, 41, 631-678. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.2001.0515
Hutson, J. M., Villaluenga, A., García-Moreno, A., Turner, E., & Gaudzinski-Windheuser, S. (2018). On the use of metapodials as tools at Schöningen 13II-4. In J. M. Hutson, A. García-Moreno, E. S. Noack, E. Turner, A. Villaluenga, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser (Eds.), The Origins of Bone Tool Technologies. “Retouching the Palaeolithic: Becoming Human and the Origins of Bone Tool Technology” Conference at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hannover, Germany, 21.-23. October 2015 (pp. 53-91). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie.
Jéquier, C. A., Romandini, M., & Peresani, M. (2012). Les retouchoirs en matières dures animales : une comparaison entre Moustérien final et Uluzzien. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 11, 283-292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2011.12.001
Jéquier, C. A., Livarghi, A., Romandini, M., & Peresani, M. (2018). Same but different: 20,000 years of bone retouchers from Northern Italy. A diachronologic approach from Neanderthals to anatomically modern humans. In J. M. Hutson, A. García-Moreno, E. S. Noack, E. Turner, A. Villaluenga, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser (Eds.), The Origins of Bone Tool Technologies. “Retouching the Palaeolithic: Becoming Human and the Origins of Bone Tool Technology” Conference at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hannover, Germany, 21.-23. October 2015 (pp. 269-285). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie.
Karavanić, I. (1995). Upper Paleolithic occupation levels and late-occurring Neandertal at Vindija Cave (Croatia) in the context of Central Europe and the Balkans. Journal of Anthropological Research, 51(1), 9-35. https://doi.org/10.1086/jar.51.1.3630370
Karavanić, I., & Smith, F.H. (1998). The Middle/Upper Paleolithic interface and the relationship of Neanderthals and early modern humans in the Hrvatsko Zagorje, Croatia. Journal of Human Evolution, 34, 223-248. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1997.0192
Karavanić, I., & Šokec, T. (2003). The Middle Paleolithic Percussion or Pressure Flaking Tools? The comparison of experimental and archaeological material from Croatia. Prilozi instituta za arheologiju, 20, 5-14.
Karavanić, I., & Patou-Mathis, M. (2009). Middle/Upper Paleolithic Interface in Vindija Cave (Croatia): New Results and Interpretations. I: M. Camps, P. R. Chauhan (Eds.), Sourcebook of Paleolithic Transitions: Methods, Theories, and Interpretations (pp. 397-405). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-76487-0_26
Karavanić, I., & Smith, F. H. (2013). Alternative interpretations of the Middle/Upper Paleolithic interface at Vindija Cave (Northwestern Croatia) in the context of Central Europe and the Adriatic. Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia, 41(4), 11-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeae.2014.07.003
Kolobova, K. A., Markin, S. V., & Chabai V. P. (2016). Kostanye retushery v srednepaleoliticheskih kompleksah Chagyrskoj peshery / Bone retouchers in the Middle Paleolithic complexes of Chagyrskaya cave. Теория и практика археологических исследований, 16(4), 35-39. https://doi.org/10.14258/tpai(2016)4(16).-03
Kozłowski, J. K. (1992). The Balkans in the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic: the gate to Europe or a cul-de-sac? Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 58, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0079497X00004059
Kozłowski, J. K. (1996). Cultural context of the last Neanderthals and early Modern Humans in Central-Eastern Europe. In O. Bar-Yosef, L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, R. J. March, M. Piperno (Eds.), Proceedings of the XIII UISPP Congress, The Lower and the Middle Palaeolithic (pp. 205-218). Abaco
Kurtanjek, D., & Marci, V. (1990). Petrografska istraživanja paleolitskih artefakata spilje Vindije. Rad Jugoslavenske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti, 449, 227-238.
Leonardi, P. (1979). Una serie di ritoccatoi prevalentemente musteriani del Riparo Tagliente in Valpantena presso Verona. Preistoria Alpina, 15, 7-15.
Leroy-Prost, C. (2002). Fiche canines de carnivores. In M. Patou-Mathis (Ed.), Retouchoirs, compresseurs, percuteurs…Os à impressions et éraillures. Paris: Société préhistorique française, 99-104.
Lyman, R. L. (1994). Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139878302
Malerba, G., Giacobini, G. (2002). Fiche eclats diaphysaires avec marques transversales d’utilisation. In: Patou-Mathis M. (ed.), Retouchoirs, compresseurs, percuteurs…Os à impressions et éraillures (pp. 29-37). Société préhistorique française.
Malez, M. (1958). Neki noviji rezultati paleontološkog istraživanja pećine Veternice, Palaeontologia Jugoslavica 1. Jugoslavenska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti.
Malez, M. (1963). Kvartarna fauna pećine Veternice u Medvednici. Palaeontologia Jugoslavica 5. Jugoslavenska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti.
Malez, M. (1965). Pećina Veternica u Medvednici. 1. Opći speleološki pregled. 2. Stratigrafija kvartarnih taložina. In: M. Tajder, & M. Salopek (Eds.), Acta geologica V. Prirodoslovna istraživanja Jugoslavenske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti 35. (pp. 175-238). Jugoslavenska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti.
Malez, M. (1967). Paleolitska nalazišta Hrvatske. Arheološki vestnik, 18, 255-290.
Malez, M. (1981). Paleolitik na području Zagreba. In: Rapanić Ž. (ed.), Arheološka istraživanja u Zagrebu i njegovoj okolici. Izdanja Hrvatskog arheološkog društva 6 (pp. 65-108). Hrvatsko arheološko društvo.
Malez, M., & Rukavina, D. (1979). Položaj naslaga spilje Vindije u sustavu članjenja kvartara šireg područja Alpa. Rad Jugoslavenske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti, 383, 187-218.
Malez, M., Smith, F. H., Radovčić, J., Rukavina, D. (1980). Upper Pleistocene hominids from Vindija, Croatia, Yugoslavia. Current Anthropology, 21(3), 365-367. https://doi.org/10.1086/202463
Mallye, J.-B., Thiébaut, C., Mourre, V., Costamagno, S., Claud, É., & Weisbecker, P. (2012). The Mousterian bone retouchers of Noisetier Cave: experimentation and identification of marks. Journal of Archaeological Science, 39, 1131-1142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.12.018
Mateo-Lomba, P., Rivals, F., Blasco, R., Rosell, J. (2019). The use of bones as retouchers at Unit III of Teixoneres Cave (MIS 3; Moià, Barcelona, Spain). Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 27, Article 101980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.101980
Mihailović, D. (2014). Paleolit na centralnom Balkanu: kulturne promene i populaciona kretanja. Srpsko arheološko društvo.
Miracle, P. T. (1991). Carnivore Dens or Carnivore Hunts? A Review of Upper Pleistocene Mammalian Assemblages in Croatia and Slovenia. Rad Hrvatske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti, 458, 193-219.
Miracle, P. T. (2007). The Krapina Paleolithic site: Zooarchaeology, taphonomy, and catalog of the faunal remains. Hrvatski prirodoslovni muzej/Croatian Natural History Museum.
Miracle, P. T., Brajković, D. (1992). Revision of the ungulate fauna and Upper Pleistocene stratigraphy of Veternica Cave (Zagreb, Croatia). Geologia Croatica, 45(1), 1-14.
Miracle, P. T., & Brajković, D. (2010). The palaeoecological significance of the Pleistocene mammalian fauna from Veternica Cave, Croatia. Revision of the lagomorpha, canidae, mustelidae and felidae. Geologia Croatica, 63(2), 207-224. https://doi.org/10.4154/gc.2010.18
Miracle, P., & Pugsley, L. (2006). Vertebrate Faunal Remains at Pupićina Cave. In: Miracle P., Forenbaher S. (eds.), Prehistoric Herders of Northern Istria: The Archaeology of Pupićina Cave, Vol. 1. Monografije i katalozi 14. (pp. 259-399). Arheološki muzej Istre.
Miracle, P. T., Mauch Lenardić, J., & Brajković, D. (2010). Last Glacial Climates, “Refugia”, and Faunal Change in Southeastern Europe: Mammalian Assemblages from Veternica, Velika pećina, and Vindija Caves (Croatia). Quaternary International, 212(2), 137-148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2009.06.003
Moigne, A. M., Valensi, P., Auguste, P., García-Solano, J., Tuffreau, A., Lamotte, A., Barroso, C., & Moncel, M. H. (2016). Bone retouchers from Lower Palaeolithic sites: Terra Amata, Orgnac 3, Cagny l’Epinette and Cueva del Angel. Quaternary International, 409, 195-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.059
Montet-White, A. (1996). Le Paléolithique en ancienne Yougoslavie. Jérôme Millon.
Morin, E., Soulier, M. C. (2017). The Paleolithic Faunal Remains from Crvena Stijena. In R. Whallon (Ed.), Crvena stijena in Cultural and Ecological Context: Multidisciplinary Archaeological Research in Montenegro. (pp. 266-294). Montenegrian Academy of Science and Arts, National Museum of Montenegro.
Mozota, M. (2009). El utillaje óseo musteriense del nivel “D” de Axlor (Dima, Vizcaya): análisis de la cadena operativa. Trabjos de Prehistoria, 66(1), 27-46. https://doi.org/10.3989/tp.2009.09011
Mozota, M. (2013). An experimental programme for the collection and use of retouching tools made on diaphyseal bone splinters. EXARC Journal, 2013(2).
Mozota, M. (2015). Un análisis tecno-funcional de los retocadores óseos musterienses del norte de la Península Ibérica, y su aplicación al estudio de los grupos neandertales. Munibe Antropologia-Arkeologia, 66, 5-21. https://doi.org/10.21630/maa.2015.66.01
Mozota, M. (2018). Experimental programmes with retouchers: where do we stand and where do we go now? In J. M. Hutson, A. García-Moreno, E. S. Noack, E. Turner, A. Villaluenga, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser (Eds.), The Origins of Bone Tool Technologies. “Retouching the Palaeolithic: Becoming Human and the Origins of Bone Tool Technology” Conference at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hannover, Germany, 21.-23. October 2015 (pp. 15-32). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie.
Mussini, C. (2011). Les restes humains moustériens des Pradelles (Marillac-le-Franc, Charente, France): étude morphométrique et réflexions sur un aspect comportemental des Néandertaliens. [Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation]. Université de Bordeaux 1.
Neruda, P., Kaminská, L. (2013). Neanderthals at Bojnice in the context of Central Europe / Neandertálci z Bojnic v kontextu střední Evropy. Anthropos 36. Moravské zemské muzeum, Archeologický ústav SAV.
Neruda, P., & Lázničková-Galetová, M. (2018). Retouchers from mammoth tusks in the Middle Palaeolithic: A case study from Kůlna cave layer 7a1 (Czech Republic). In J. M. Hutson, A. García-Moreno, E. S. Noack, E. Turner, A. Villaluenga, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser (Eds.), The Origins of Bone Tool Technologies. “Retouching the Palaeolithic: Becoming Human and the Origins of Bone Tool Technology” Conference at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hannover, Germany, 21.-23. October 2015 (pp. 215-233). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie..
Neruda, P., Lázničková-Galetová M., Dreslerová G. (2011). Retušéry a kosti s rýhami z jeskyně Kůlny v Moravském krasu: interdisciplinární analýza tvrdých živočišných tkáni ze středopaleolitických horizontů. Anthropos 33. Moravské zemské muzeum.
Patou-Mathis, M. (1997). Analyses taphonomique et palethno graphique du materiel osseux de Krapina (Croatie): novelles données sur la faune et les restes humains. Préhistoire Européenne, 10, 63-90.
Patou-Mathis, M., & Schwab, C. (2002). Fiche générale. In M. Patou-Mathis (Ed.), Retouchoirs, compresseurs, percuteurs…Os à impressions et éraillures. (pp. 11-19). Société préhistorique française.
Patou-Mathis, M., Karavanić, I., & Smith, F. H. (2018). The evidence from Vindija Cave (Croatia) reveals diversity of Neandertal behaviour in Europe. Quaternary International, 494, 314-326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.06.023
Reitz, E. J., & Wing, E. S. (1999). Zooarchaeology. Cambridge Manual in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press.
Roberts, M. B., & Parfitt, S. A. (1999). Boxgrove: A Middle Pleistocene Hominid Site at Eartham Quarry, Boxgrove, West Sussex. Archaeological Report 17. English Heritage.
Romandini M., Terlato G., Nannini N., Tagliacozzo A., Benazzi S., & Peresani M. (2018). Bears and humans, a Neanderthal tale. Reconstructing uncommon behaviors from zooarchaeological evidence in southern Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science, 90, 71-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2017.12.004
Rosell, J., Blasco, R., Campeny, G., Díez, J. C., Alcalde, R. A., Menéndez, L., Arsuaga, J. L., Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., & Carbonell, E. (2011). Bone as a technological raw material at the Gran Dolina site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain). Journal of Human Evolution, 61, 125-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.02.001
Rosell, J., Blasco, R., Fernández Peris, J., Carbonell, E., Barkai, R., & Gopher, A. (2015). Recycling bones in the Middle Pleistocene: some reflections from Gran Dolina TD10-1 (Spain), Bolomor Cave (Spain) and Qesem Cave (Israel). Quaternary International, 361, 297-312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.009
Rosell, J., Blasco, R., Martin-Lerma, I., Barkai, R., & Gopher, A. (2018). When discarded bones became important: new bone retouchers from the lower sequence of Qesem Cave, Israel (ca. 300-420 ka). In J. M. Hutson, A. García-Moreno, E. S. Noack, E. Turner, A. Villaluenga, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser (Eds.), The Origins of Bone Tool Technologies. “Retouching the Palaeolithic: Becoming Human and the Origins of Bone Tool Technology” Conference at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hannover, Germany, 21.-23. October 2015 (pp. 33-51). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie.
Rougier, H., Crevecoeur, I., Beauva,l C., Posth, C., Flas, D., Wißing, C., Furtwängler, A., Germonpré, M, Gómez-Olivencia, A., Sema,l P., van der Plicht, J., Bocherens, H., & Krause, J. (2016). Neandertal cannibalism and Neandertal bones used as tools in Nothern Europe. Scientific Reports, 6, Article 29005. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep29005
Schwab, C. (2002). Fiche éclats diaphysaires du Paléolithique moyen et supérieur: la grotte d’Isturitz (Pyrénées-Atlantique). In M. Patou-Mathis (Ed.), Retouchoirs, compresseurs, percuteurs…Os à impressions et éraillures (pp. 59-73). Société préhistorique française.
Sévêque, N., Auguste, P. (2018). From west to east: Lower and Middle Palaeolithic bone retouchers in northern France. In: In J. M. Hutson, A. García-Moreno, E. S. Noack, E. Turner, A. Villaluenga, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser (Eds.), The Origins of Bone Tool Technologies. “Retouching the Palaeolithic: Becoming Human and the Origins of Bone Tool Technology” Conference at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hannover, Germany, 21.-23. October 2015 (pp. 133-164). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie.
Smith, F. H., Boyd, C. D., & Malez, M. (1985). Additional upper Pleistocene human remains from Vindija cave, Croatia, Yugoslavia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 68(3), 375-388. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330680308
Smith, G. M. (2010). A contextual approach to the study of faunal assemblages from Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites in the UK. [Unpublished PhD Dissertation]. University College London.
Smith, G. M. (2013). Taphonomic resolution and hominin subsistence behaviour in the Lower Palaeolithic: differing data scales and interpretive frameworks at Boxgrove and Swanscombe (UK). Journal of Archaeological Science, 40, 3754-3767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.05.002
Soulier, M. C. (2014). L’exploitation alimentaire et technique du gibier au début du Paléolithique supérieur aux Abeilles (Haute-Garonne, France). Paleo, 25, 287-307. https://doi.org/10.4000/paleo.2829
Tartar, E. (2012). Réflexion autour de la fonction des retouchoirs en os de l’Aurignacien ancien. Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, 109(1), 69-83. https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.2012.14143
Taute, W. (1965). Retoucheure aus Knochen, Zahnbein und Stein vom Mittelpaläolithikum bis zum Neolithikum. Fundberichte aus Schwaben, 17, 76-102.
Tourloukis, V., Thompson, N., Panagopoulou, E., Giusti, D., Konidaris, G. E., Karkana,s P., & Harvati, K. (2018). Lithic artifacts and bone tools from the Lower Palaeolithic site Marathousa 1, Megalopolis, Greece: Preliminary results. Quaternary International, 497, 47-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.05.043
Turk, I., & Dirjec ,J. (1989). Apnarjeva jama – Novo moustériensko najdišče: Poročilo o sondiranju 1987/1988. Celjski zbornik, 25, 7-19.
Valensi, P., & Psathi, E. (2004). Faunal Exploitation during the Middle Palaeolithic in South-eastern France and North-western Italy. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 14, 256-272. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.760
van Kolfschoten, T., Parfitt, S. A., Serangeli, J., & Bello, S. M. (2015). Lower Paleolithic bone tools from the ‘Spear Horizon’ at Schöningen (Germany). Journal of Human Evolution, 89, 226-263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.09.012
Verna, C., d’Errico, F. (2011). The earliest evidence for the use of human bone as a tool. Journal of Human Evolution, 60, 145-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.027
Veselsky, A. P. (2008). Kabazi V: Bone and Stone Tools Used in Flint Knapping. In V. Chabai, J. Richter, T. Uthmeier, Kabazi V: Interstratification of Micoquian & Levallois-Mousterian Camp Sites. Palaeolithic Sites of Crimea 3, Part 2. (pp. 427-454). National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine – Institute of Archaeology Crimean Branch, University of Cologne – Institute of Prehistoric Archaeology.
Villa, P., Mahieu, E. (1991). Breakage patterns of human long bones. Journal of Human Evolution, 21(1), 27-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2484(91)90034-S
Vuković, S. (1950). Paleolitska kamena industrija spilje Vindije. Historijski zbornik, 3, 241-256.
Wolpoff, M. H. (1999). Paleoanthropology (2nd edition). McGraw-Hill.
Wolpoff, M. H., Smith, F. H., Malez, M., Radovčić, J., & Rukavina, D. (1981). Upper Pleistocene human remains from Vindija cave, Croatia, Yugoslavia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 54(4), 499-545. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330540407
Zilhão, J. (2009). Szeletian, Not Aurignacian: A Review of the Chronology and Cultural Associations of the Vindija G1 Neandertals. In M. Camps, P. R. Chauhan (Eds.), Sourcebook of Paleolithic Transitions: Methods, Theories, and Interpretations (pp. 407-426). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-76487-0_27
